Lion’s Mane Mushroom (scientifically known as Hericium erinaceus) is a unique medicinal fungus prized for its potential brain-boosting and immunological support. Often recognized by its cascading, icicle-like spines, this mushroom has gained popularity as a nootropic for its possible cognitive-enhancing effects. It contains active compounds linked to nerve health, antioxidant activity, and overall wellness support. Traditional Eastern medicine systems have long utilized Lion’s Mane for promoting digestive balance and mental clarity. Today, modern enthusiasts incorporate it into capsules, powders, and culinary recipes. In this comprehensive guide, you’ll discover its natural habitat, chemical constituents, health advantages, recommended uses, safety considerations, and significant research findings.
Table of Contents
- Mushroom Profile and Habitat Understanding
- Analyzing Chemical Makeup and Key Constituents
- Core Health Advantages and Distinct Attributes
- Usage Scenarios and Vital Safety Measures
- Prominent Scientific Investigations and Standout Discoveries
- Commonly Posed Questions and Brief Answers
Mushroom Profile and Habitat Understanding
Few fungi stand out like Lion’s Mane Mushroom, with its distinctive white, shaggy appearance that sets it apart from your everyday button mushroom. Rather than the classic stem-and-cap shape, you’ll notice elongated tendrils that resemble the cascading mane of a lion—hence its memorable nickname. Although it might look exotic, it naturally grows in temperate forest environments across North America, Europe, and parts of Asia, favoring hardwood trees such as oak, maple, and beech. Whether it’s nestled in crevices of decaying wood or sprouting from a downed log, Lion’s Mane thrives in damp, shady conditions.
Taxonomic Highlights
- Kingdom: Fungi
- Phylum: Basidiomycota
- Class: Agaricomycetes
- Order: Russulales
- Family: Hericiaceae
- Genus: Hericium
- Species: Hericium erinaceus
This species is recognized under various local names, including Bearded Tooth Mushroom, Yamabushitake (in Japanese), and Monkey Head Mushroom (in Chinese). From an evolutionary standpoint, it belongs to the Basidiomycota, a phylum that includes many well-known edible and medicinal mushrooms. The Hericiaceae family specifically gathers tooth fungi known for their spines or tooth-like projections instead of gills.
Physical Characteristics
Lion’s Mane forms large, globe-shaped masses, usually ranging from a few inches to almost a foot across under optimal circumstances. The soft spines, or “teeth,” can grow in clusters, extending downward and giving the mushroom a furry or hairy look. Early in its development, the fungus is pure white, but it can turn slightly yellowish or brownish with age or when bruised.
- Texture: Inside, the flesh is dense and somewhat fibrous, bearing a resemblance to crab or lobster meat when torn apart.
- Taste: In culinary circles, Lion’s Mane is often praised for its mild flavor that some compare to seafood—another reason it’s widely used in vegetarian or vegan cooking as a meat substitute.
Growth Conditions and Life Cycle
Habitat and Substrate:
- Typically found on decaying hardwood logs or living trees that have open wounds or damaged bark.
- Requires a humid, temperate environment, and usually fruits in late summer to early fall when conditions are moist.
Spore Release and Spreading:
- As a basidiomycete, Lion’s Mane creates spores on specialized structures, which are contained within its teeth or spines.
- When mature, these spores drop off, dispersing through the air and settling on new wood surfaces.
- If conditions are right, the spores germinate into mycelium—a thread-like fungal network that eventually produces new fruiting bodies.
Historical and Cultural Context
In traditional Chinese medicine, Lion’s Mane has been cherished for its potential to support digestion, vitality, and mental sharpness. Buddhist monks reportedly consumed it to boost focus during meditation. In Japan, it’s known as Yamabushitake, a reference to ascetic mountain monks called “Yamabushi,” who revered the mushroom for both its physical resemblance to their robes and its reputed cognitive benefits.
As global interest in functional mushrooms surged, Lion’s Mane quickly became a favorite among health enthusiasts and herbalists. Unlike more pungent medicinal fungi like Reishi or Chaga, Lion’s Mane is palatable when sautéed or prepared in soups, bridging the gap between nutritional ingredient and healing superfood.
Spotting Lion’s Mane in the Wild
Foraging for Lion’s Mane can be an exciting endeavor for mushroom hunters. To do so safely:
- Check Decaying Hardwoods: Look closely at logs or stumps during damp months, especially in older forests.
- Identify the Toothy Spines: Avoid confusion with other “toothed” mushrooms by confirming a solid white mass with hanging spines.
- No Gills or Pores: Lion’s Mane lacks the typical mushroom cap; instead, it displays a unique cluster of downward-facing spines.
- Consult Expert Guidance: Beginners should always forage with a seasoned mushroom expert to avoid mistakes and possible toxic lookalikes.
Cultivation Trend
Modern cultivators have developed methods to grow Lion’s Mane at home or commercially, often using sterilized sawdust blocks or grain-based substrates. With proper humidity and temperature control (often between 60°F and 75°F), the fungus can fruit multiple times. Hobbyists enjoy watching the dramatic fruiting bodies develop, while commercial growers supply fresh or dried Lion’s Mane to markets and restaurants worldwide.
Overall, the mushroom’s singular appearance, rewarding texture, and deep-seated history of medicinal usage converge to make Lion’s Mane Mushroom a fascinating subject for both culinary enthusiasts and holistic health practitioners. In the coming sections, we’ll dive further into its rich chemical composition and how these compounds may contribute to its growing reputation as a brain-supporting and wellness-boosting food.
Analyzing Chemical Makeup and Key Constituents
Behind Lion’s Mane Mushroom’s striking appearance lies a complex chemical tapestry that potentially underpins its many reputed health benefits. Although ongoing research continues to illuminate its full spectrum of bioactive compounds, scientists have already identified several notable components that appear to set this mushroom apart.
- Hericenones
- Overview: These compounds, found primarily in the fruiting body, have drawn attention for their ability to stimulate the production of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF).
- Relevance: NGF is essential for the development, maintenance, and survival of neurons. Through its influence on NGF, Lion’s Mane may support cognitive health, memory, and nerve function.
- Erinacines
- Source: Mostly located in the mycelium (the root-like network of the fungus) rather than the visible fruiting body.
- Potential Effect: Like hericenones, erinacines exhibit neuroprotective qualities, believed to cross the blood-brain barrier and possibly promote neuronal growth and repair. This synergy may contribute to Lion’s Mane’s nootropic or “brain-boosting” reputation.
- Polysaccharides
- Significance: Many medicinal mushrooms feature high levels of polysaccharides—long carbohydrate chains—linked with immune modulation and anti-inflammatory effects.
- Beta-Glucans: Among the most studied polysaccharides are beta-glucans, recognized for aiding immune system functionality by stimulating various defense mechanisms. They may also contribute to the mushroom’s potential to maintain balanced blood sugar levels.
- Phenolic and Sterol Compounds
- Antioxidant Capacity: Phenolic acids in Lion’s Mane have displayed free radical scavenging activity in lab studies, suggesting that they help protect the body’s cells from oxidative damage.
- Sterols: Ergosterol is a sterol found in many fungi, which the body can convert to vitamin D2 under UV light exposure. While not as potent as animal-derived vitamin D3, it still offers some vitamin D benefits.
- Digestive Enzymes
- Enzyme Support: The fungus is believed to harbor enzymes that aid in breaking down certain dietary components. Although not fully studied for enzyme supplementation, these enzymes may complement digestive health, particularly when consuming the mushroom in cooked or supplemental form.
- Essential Minerals and Nutrients
- Minerals Present: Lion’s Mane can contain trace amounts of potassium, zinc, and iron. These minerals are crucial for numerous bodily functions, including energy production, immune support, and healthy blood cells.
- Protein and Fiber: As a food source, Lion’s Mane offers moderate protein and dietary fiber, contributing to overall nutrition while enhancing satiety.
- Other Bioactive Constituents
- Terpenoids and Alkaloids: Research indicates that smaller terpenoid and alkaloid molecules may exist in Lion’s Mane. Though they appear in lesser concentrations, their collective impact could influence mood, immune regulation, or additional physiological processes.
- Additional Polypeptides: Certain polypeptides are believed to display antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory effects, though more studies are required to substantiate these findings.
Factors Influencing Potency
Just like other mushrooms, the exact profile of active compounds in Lion’s Mane can vary based on:
- Growth Medium: Logs vs. sawdust vs. grain-based substrate.
- Environmental Conditions: Temperature, humidity, and sunlight exposure during fruiting.
- Age at Harvest: Younger fruiting bodies might have different concentrations of hericenones than older ones.
- Processing Methods: Drying, freeze-drying, or heating can alter or degrade certain volatile substances.
The Entourage Effect
Many herbalists discuss an “entourage effect” within plant-based and fungal-based products—where multiple compounds work synergistically to produce holistic benefits. In Lion’s Mane, hericenones and erinacines might complement each other’s neuroprotective capabilities, while polysaccharides and antioxidants potentially reinforce immune and overall protective properties.
Scientific Outlook
Interest in Lion’s Mane’s chemistry isn’t just academic; several supplement manufacturers isolate or standardize specific compounds (like erinacines) to enhance targeted benefits. However, numerous experts still advocate for full-spectrum extracts that preserve the mushroom’s natural chemical diversity, citing historical usage patterns and synergy as key. Ongoing research aims to refine the knowledge of which compounds are most biologically active and how best to harness their therapeutic potential.
By unraveling the mushroom’s chemical puzzle, we better appreciate why individuals are increasingly drawn to Lion’s Mane for cognitive support, immune well-being, and more. Next, we’ll dive into the recognized health advantages of this standout fungus and explore how these constituents might foster various aspects of human vitality.
Core Health Advantages and Distinct Attributes
Over centuries, Lion’s Mane Mushroom has won devotees in traditional medicine circles due to its perceived ability to elevate mental clarity and fortify the body against illness. Modern science has begun validating some of these time-honored claims. Let’s explore the notable ways in which Lion’s Mane may support wellness, from top-tier brain function to balanced digestion.
Cognitive and Nerve Support
- Boosted Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) Production
- The most celebrated benefit revolves around hericenones and erinacines, compounds tied to raising NGF levels.
- NGF fosters neuron growth, repair, and overall brain plasticity. Higher NGF can imply sharper memory, quicker learning, and potentially a reduced risk of age-related cognitive decline.
- Anecdotal stories feature improved focus and reduced mental “fog,” though experiences may vary.
- Mental Clarity and Mood Regulation
- Some users report better mood and a calmer mind after incorporating Lion’s Mane into their routine.
- Preliminary investigations suggest possible interactions with neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, though in-depth research is still emerging.
- By encouraging a stable neural environment, Lion’s Mane may provide mild mood-balancing effects.
Immune System Enhancement
- Beta-Glucans’ Role
- These polysaccharides can stimulate the activity of immune cells such as macrophages and natural killer (NK) cells.
- A more robust immune response helps the body ward off everyday pathogens and fosters a dynamic state of internal vigilance.
- While not a guaranteed shield against illness, consistent intake could contribute to overall immune resilience.
- Regulation of Inflammatory Processes
- Chronic inflammation has been linked to a range of health issues, from cardiovascular concerns to autoimmune conditions.
- Lion’s Mane’s anti-inflammatory properties may arise from its ability to modulate cytokines and other inflammatory markers.
- This balancing effect can support healthy joint function, muscle comfort, and general vitality.
Gastrointestinal Health
- Support for Mucosal Linings
- Certain components in Lion’s Mane, including polysaccharides, might protect the mucosal lining of the stomach.
- Individuals with mild stomach sensitivities or those prone to gastric imbalances sometimes find relief through supportive mushrooms like this one.
- Animal models suggest that it may enhance digestive harmony, although human-focused studies remain relatively limited.
- Possible Microbiome Benefits
- A healthy gut microbiome plays a central role in digestion, immune function, and even mood regulation.
- Prebiotic fibers within mushrooms can nourish beneficial gut bacteria.
- Some initial research hints that Lion’s Mane could encourage a favorable microbial balance, though more data is needed to confirm these preliminary findings.
Metabolic and Cardiovascular Assistance
- Cholesterol Management: Early lab-based studies point to the mushroom’s ability to help balance cholesterol levels, particularly by influencing LDL (“bad cholesterol”) metabolism.
- Blood Sugar Regulation: Polysaccharides in Lion’s Mane might bolster normal insulin sensitivity, aiding in the regulation of blood glucose.
- Blood Pressure Implications: Although data remains scant, the anti-inflammatory potential may have a positive ripple effect on vascular flexibility and heart wellness.
Antioxidant Defense
- Free Radical Neutralization: Phenolic compounds and other antioxidants in Lion’s Mane can scavenge reactive oxygen species, reducing oxidative stress.
- Cellular Protection: By limiting oxidative damage, the mushroom potentially supports healthy aging and lessens the cumulative impact of environmental toxins.
Stress Adaptation and Sleep Quality
- Adaptogenic-Like Qualities: Some users anecdotally compare Lion’s Mane to adaptogens (substances that help the body adapt to stress).
- Sleep Patterns: Enhanced mental clarity and reduced nervous tension might contribute to more consistent rest, though direct studies on sleep are minimal.
Potential for Neurological Conditions
Researchers are especially curious about Lion’s Mane’s role in mitigating certain neurological disorders. Although far from conclusive:
- Mild Cognitive Impairment: Some small-scale human trials link regular supplementation with subtle cognitive improvement in older adults experiencing mild cognitive decline.
- Neurodegenerative Diseases: Exploratory lab studies examine whether it could slow or modulate processes in Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease, focusing on its nerve-regenerating capacity.
- Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF): A separate but related factor to NGF is BDNF, with hints that Lion’s Mane might promote overall neural plasticity, though these findings need further validation.
Individual Variations
Responses to Lion’s Mane can diverge widely. Some individuals notice pronounced effects on focus and energy almost immediately; others experience more subtle changes over weeks or months. As with most natural supplements, consistency and patience are key, along with mindful observation of how your body responds.
Collectively, these attributes suggest that Lion’s Mane Mushroom isn’t just another culinary novelty—it may offer genuine nutritional and functional benefits. In the following section, we’ll look at how best to integrate Lion’s Mane into daily life, along with important safety considerations and preparation tips.
Usage Scenarios and Vital Safety Measures
Lion’s Mane Mushroom lends itself to multiple applications, from satisfying mealtime ingredients to capsules for daily supplementation. While it’s often regarded as a gentle, low-risk mushroom, there are still essential pointers and precautions to observe. Below, we’ll outline ways to use Lion’s Mane effectively, along with guidelines that help minimize potential side effects or hazards.
Culinary Integrations
- Fresh Lion’s Mane in Cooking
- Sauté and Stir-Fry: This mushroom’s seafood-like texture makes it a sought-after choice for plant-based dishes. Lightly sauté slices in oil with garlic and herbs, or incorporate them into stir-fries with vegetables.
- Soups and Stews: Add cubed pieces to warm broths for a hint of natural umami. Its dense consistency holds up well under slow cooking, absorbing surrounding flavors.
- Substitute for Meat or Seafood: Many vegetarians replace crab or lobster with Lion’s Mane in recipes like “crab cakes” or bisques.
- Dried or Powdered Form
- Dehydrated Slices: Rehydrate in warm water before using them in recipes. While the texture might be slightly altered, the flavor profile generally remains appealing.
- Powdered: Perfect for smoothies, sauces, or baked goods. Combine with other ingredients to mask any earthy undertones if preferred.
Supplement Formats
- Extracts and Tinctures
- Usually made through hot water or dual extraction methods to concentrate the beneficial compounds.
- Tinctures can be mixed with water or tea, or placed directly under the tongue (if recommended by the manufacturer).
- Capsules and Tablets
- Convenience is the biggest draw here—no need to handle cooking or measure powders.
- Various brands highlight specific levels of erinacines or hericenones for targeted cognitive support.
- Always verify if the product uses fruiting body, mycelium, or a combination. The concentration of active compounds can differ.
- Blend with Other Functional Mushrooms
- Lion’s Mane frequently appears in synergy with Reishi, Cordyceps, or Chaga.
- Such blends aim to create a balanced approach to energy, immunity, and stress resilience.
- Check product quality to ensure transparent labeling of each mushroom’s origin and percentage.
Optimal Dosage
- General Ranges: Many individuals consume 500 mg to 3,000 mg (3 g) of Lion’s Mane daily, although exact needs vary.
- Incremental Approach: Start with a conservative amount (500–1,000 mg or a small portion of cooked mushroom) to gauge tolerance.
- Consistency: For cognitive or immune benefits, daily use over several weeks or months may yield the best outcomes.
Potential Side Effects and Interactions
- Digestive Upset
- A small percentage of people experience mild abdominal discomfort or bloating, particularly if they have a sensitive gut.
- Lowering the dosage or introducing the mushroom gradually might help.
- Allergic Reactions
- As with any fungus, allergic reactions are possible. Symptoms could include skin rashes, itching, or mild respiratory issues.
- Discontinue use immediately and consult a healthcare professional if you suspect an allergy.
- Medication Interactions
- Lion’s Mane is not widely known for severe interactions, but caution is prudent if you’re on blood-thinning or immune-modulating drugs.
- When in doubt, discuss with a qualified medical practitioner to ensure safe compatibility.
- Pregnancy and Nursing
- Comprehensive data on Lion’s Mane use during pregnancy or lactation is limited.
- Expectant or nursing mothers may want to consult a healthcare provider before introducing new supplements.
Quality Assurance
- Sourcing Matters: Reputable suppliers often test for heavy metals, contaminants, and accurate labeling of active compounds.
- Organic vs. Conventional: Mushrooms readily absorb substances from their environment, so organic or well-regulated cultivation can make a difference in purity.
- Third-Party Lab Testing: Seek products that provide Certificates of Analysis, verifying authenticity and quality.
Storage and Shelf Life
- Fresh Mushrooms: Refrigerate in a paper bag or breathable container to prevent moisture accumulation. Use them within a week.
- Dried/Powdered: Store in airtight containers away from direct sunlight and moisture.
- Extracts/Capsules: Adhere to label guidelines, keeping them in a cool, dark place. Most such products maintain potency for up to a year or two when sealed properly.
Practical Tips
- Combine with Balanced Nutrition: Lion’s Mane can’t singlehandedly cure or prevent ailments; it works best within a comprehensive wellness approach—sufficient sleep, a nutrient-rich diet, and regular exercise.
- Monitor Body Responses: Maintain a simple journal of how you feel after incorporating Lion’s Mane. This can help you fine-tune dosage or identify if the mushroom is having a positive influence.
- Discuss with Professionals: If you have specific health concerns like ongoing neurological conditions, autoimmune disorders, or are recovering from surgery, gather input from a healthcare practitioner to ensure it aligns with your broader treatment plan.
Whether you approach Lion’s Mane as a delicious addition to your dinner menu or a daily nootropic supplement, mindful use often yields the most reliable results. In the next section, we’ll explore the scientific research shaping our understanding of this mushroom’s capabilities, shedding light on the potential it holds for modern healthcare and wellness routines.
Prominent Scientific Investigations and Standout Discoveries
In recent decades, Lion’s Mane Mushroom has captured the interest of global researchers, sparking numerous investigations into its neurological, immunological, and metabolic effects. While the body of evidence grows each year, here are some standout studies and findings that shape our comprehension of its medicinal properties.
- (2010) Cognitive Function in Mild Cognitive Impairment
- Study Name: “Improvement of Mild Cognitive Impairment by Oral Intake of Hericium erinaceus”
- Journal: Phytotherapy Research
- Key Observations: Over four months, older adults with mild cognitive impairment experienced measurable improvements in cognitive function after consuming Lion’s Mane powder daily. Once the supplementation ceased, some benefits gradually waned, suggesting ongoing intake may be crucial.
- Relevance: This clinical trial was among the first human studies linking Lion’s Mane to cognitive enhancement, fueling a surge in interest regarding its nootropic potential.
- (2014) Neuroregenerative and Neuroprotective Influence
- Research Focus: Examining how erinacines from mycelial extracts impact neurological healing in animal models.
- Findings: Lab animals showed a reduction in nerve injury severity and improved neural repair markers when supplemented with erinacine-rich extracts.
- Why It Matters: Such data highlight the mushroom’s potential in promoting neural regeneration, aligning with anecdotal claims of better memory and sharper thinking.
- (2015) Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Properties
- Study Name: “Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Effects of H. erinaceus Polysaccharides”
- Journal: International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms
- Core Outcome: Polysaccharide fractions demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity in cell cultures, alongside a strong capacity to neutralize free radicals.
- Practical Implications: Beyond brain health, these findings suggest a broader scope of physiological support, potentially alleviating inflammation-linked conditions.
- (2017) Gastroprotective Mechanisms
- Study Name: “Protective Effects of Lion’s Mane Mushroom in Animal Models of Gastrointestinal Lesions”
- Journal: Journal of Ethnopharmacology
- Discovery: Animal models with induced gastric ulcers or inflammation displayed faster recovery rates and reduced symptom severity upon receiving Lion’s Mane extracts.
- Application: Reinforces traditional usage for digestive comfort and underlines its potential in mucosal healing processes.
- (2019) Immunomodulatory Insights
- Focus: Investigating how beta-glucans in Lion’s Mane influence immune cells like macrophages, T-cells, and NK cells.
- Outcome: Demonstrated heightened immune cell activity and more efficient pathogen clearance, albeit in vitro conditions.
- Takeaway: While promising, further clinical research on humans is needed to fully confirm how it might bolster everyday immunity.
- (2021) Mental Health and Mood Parameters
- Study Name: “Assessment of Anxiolytic and Antidepressant Effects of Hericium erinaceus in a Controlled Trial”
- Journal: Pharmacognosy Research
- Observations: Participants taking Lion’s Mane supplements showed moderate reductions in self-reported stress and mild anxiety levels.
- Caveats: The sample size was modest, urging larger-scale trials to validate the potential mood-regulating properties.
Broader Research Trends
- Neurodegenerative Disease Models: Additional studies explore the mushroom’s influence on conditions like Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease at the cellular or animal model level.
- Combination Therapies: Researchers are curious whether pairing Lion’s Mane with conventional medications or other natural compounds yields better outcomes than single interventions alone.
- Active Compound Standardization: Growing interest surrounds optimizing the extraction process for hericenones, erinacines, and beta-glucans, aiming for consistent potency across commercial products.
Ongoing Questions
- Long-Term Effects: While short-term benefits are reported, the safety and efficacy of prolonged high-dose Lion’s Mane supplementation demand further investigation.
- Population Specifics: Most studies focus on older adults or individuals with particular health conditions. More data on other demographics—such as children, pregnant women, or people with autoimmune disorders—remain limited.
- Optimal Delivery Methods: Researchers continue to debate whether synergy from whole fruiting bodies outperforms isolated compounds, or if advanced extraction methods deliver better outcomes.
While we await larger, more rigorous clinical trials, the existing body of research provides a hopeful outlook. Lion’s Mane’s unique blend of neurotrophic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant features suggests it may hold immense promise within integrative health. In the next section, we’ll address frequently asked questions to further clarify usage and help you make informed decisions about adding Lion’s Mane to your wellness toolkit.
Commonly Posed Questions and Brief Answers
Is Lion’s Mane Mushroom safe for daily consumption?
Yes. Most healthy adults can consume it daily in moderate amounts without adverse effects. Start with small servings (like 500–1,000 mg or 1–2 ounces of cooked mushroom) and monitor how you feel before increasing intake.
Does Lion’s Mane have a strong flavor or smell?
It’s relatively mild. When cooked, many people describe a subtle, seafood-like taste, making it quite versatile. The aroma is gentle and earthy, not as pungent as some other medicinal fungi.
Can Lion’s Mane help with anxiety or depression?
Preliminary research and anecdotal feedback suggest it may offer mild mood benefits. However, it’s not a standalone treatment. Individuals with mental health concerns should seek professional care and view Lion’s Mane as a complementary option.
How quickly will I notice any cognitive improvements?
Timelines vary. Some people report feeling sharper within days or weeks, while others might need consistent use over several months to see discernible changes. Factors like dosage, overall health, and lifestyle also play roles.
Is it necessary to cook Lion’s Mane, or can I eat it raw?
Cooking is often recommended because it breaks down chitin in the mushroom’s cell walls, making the nutrients more bioavailable. It also helps reduce any risk of digestive upset. Raw consumption is not harmful but may yield less benefit.
Disclaimer
This article is provided for educational purposes and should not be taken as medical advice. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before making changes to your health regimen, especially if you have an existing medical condition or are on medication.
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