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Learn how HLA-DR and CD38 flow cytometry measures activated T cells, what high results may mean, why ranges vary, and how clinicians plan follow-up.

Activated T-Cell Marker Test: HLA-DR, CD38, Immune Activation, and Inflammation

Understand how CD19 and CD20 B-cell counts are measured, why results may be high or low, how anti-CD20 therapy affects them, and which follow-up tests assess antibody function.

B-Cell Count Test: CD19, CD20, Immune Function, and Antibody Production

Learn what a CD4 count measures, how HIV affects helper T cells, what common ranges and thresholds mean, why results fluctuate, and how the test guides monitoring and infection prevention.

CD4 Count Test: Helper T Cells, Immune Function, HIV Monitoring, and Meaning

Learn how the CD4/CD8 ratio is calculated, what low or high results may mean, why an inverted ratio is nonspecific, and how the test adds context in HIV and immune monitoring.

CD4/CD8 Ratio Test: Immune Balance, High and Low Ratio, and Meaning

Learn what a CD8 count measures, why cytotoxic T-cell numbers may rise or fall, how viral infections affect results, and why cell quantity does not equal antiviral function.

CD8 Count Test: Cytotoxic T Cells, Immune Function, and Viral Response

Understand what a chemokine panel measures, why immune-signaling and cell-migration markers rise or fall, and how specialists interpret patterns and limitations.

Chemokine Panel Test: Immune Signaling, Inflammation, and Cell Migration Markers

Diagnostics

Home Diagnostics Page 13

Understand what an amylin blood test measures, how the pancreatic hormone affects glucose and appetite, and what low, high, fasting, or stimulated results may mean.

Amylin Blood Test: Pancreatic Hormone, Glucose Control, and Results

Learn how a C-peptide blood test measures pancreatic insulin production, what high or low results mean, how ranges vary, and how it helps evaluate diabetes and hypoglycemia.

C-Peptide Blood Test: High, Low, Normal Range, Diabetes, and Results

Learn how fasting insulin testing relates to insulin resistance and metabolic health, why ranges vary, and what high or low results mean when compared with glucose.

Fasting Insulin Test: High Levels, Normal Range, Insulin Resistance, and Metabolic...

Learn why a gastrin blood test is ordered, how PPIs and stomach acid affect results, and when high levels may suggest Zollinger-Ellison syndrome or low acid.

Gastrin Blood Test: High Levels, Stomach Acid, Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome, and Results

Learn what a ghrelin blood test measures, why total and active forms differ, and how fasting, weight loss, obesity, surgery, and sample handling affect high or low results.

Ghrelin Blood Test: Hunger Hormone, High and Low Levels, and Results

Learn what a glucagon blood test measures, why high or low levels occur, how ranges and assay methods differ, and when results may suggest glucagonoma or impaired glucose counter-regulation.

Glucagon Blood Test: High, Low, Normal Range, and Glucose Control

Learn what a GLP-1 test measures, why active and total results differ, how meal testing works, and how to interpret high or low GLP-1 levels in context.

Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Test: Incretin Hormone, Diabetes, and Results

Learn what a GIP test measures, how active and total GIP differ, why meal timing and sample handling matter, and what high or low results may mean.

Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Peptide (GIP) Test: Incretin Hormone and Results

Calculate and understand HOMA-IR, including fasting requirements, formulas, common cutoffs, causes of high or low scores, limitations, and follow-up testing.

HOMA-IR Test: Insulin Resistance Score, Fasting Insulin, and Results

Understand a hypoglycemia hormone panel, including insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, beta-hydroxybutyrate, critical-sample timing, result patterns, and next steps.

Hypoglycemia Hormone Test Panel: Insulin, C-Peptide, Proinsulin, Beta-Hydroxybutyrate, and Results

Learn how an insulin blood test is used, what fasting ranges mean, why insulin may be high or low, and how results relate to insulin resistance, diabetes, and hypoglycemia.

Insulin Blood Test: High, Low, Normal Range, Insulin Resistance, and Results

Understand an insulin resistance panel with fasting insulin, glucose, C-peptide, and HOMA-IR, including result patterns, limits, preparation, and follow-up.

Insulin Resistance Blood Test Panel: Fasting Insulin, Glucose, C-Peptide, HOMA-IR, and...

Learn how the insulin/C-peptide molar ratio is calculated and interpreted during hypoglycemia, including exogenous insulin patterns, endogenous secretion, assay limits, and follow-up tests.

Insulin/C-Peptide Ratio Test: Exogenous Insulin Use, Insulin Production, and Results

Understand what a leptin blood test measures, why levels may be high or low, how obesity and leptin resistance affect results, and when specialized follow-up is appropriate.

Leptin Blood Test: High, Low, Obesity, Metabolic Health, and Results

Learn how insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, and glucagon are used in a pancreatic hormone test panel, what result patterns mean, and why timing and assay context matter.

Pancreatic Hormone Test Panel: Insulin, C-Peptide, Proinsulin, Glucagon, and Results

Learn what a pancreatic polypeptide test measures, why levels may be high, how fasting and age affect results, and when tumor or vagal-function follow-up is appropriate.

Pancreatic Polypeptide Test: High Levels, Pancreatic Function, and Results

Learn what a proinsulin blood test measures, why levels may be high, how results help evaluate insulin production and hypoglycemia, and when insulinoma follow-up is needed.

Proinsulin Blood Test: High Levels, Insulin Production, and Results

Understand what a somatostatin blood test measures, why levels may be high, how somatostatinoma affects glucose and digestion, and what follow-up testing is needed.

Somatostatin Blood Test: High Levels, Pancreatic Hormone, and Results

Learn when a VIP blood test is used for high-volume watery diarrhea, how high results support VIPoma, and why potassium loss, specimen handling, and imaging matter.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) Test: High Levels, Diarrhea, and Results

Understand an androgen deficiency blood test panel, including testosterone, SHBG, free testosterone, LH, FSH, result patterns, causes, preparation, and follow-up.

Androgen Deficiency Blood Test Panel: Testosterone, SHBG, LH, FSH, Symptoms, and...

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